The central theme of the assigned readings this week primarily concern Japan’s rise as an imperialist global power, with a specific focus on its dynamic relationship to other countries for both Asia and Western nations. The first reading by Iriye opened with an exploration into Japan’s strategy toward expansion; the Japanese adopted an amalgamation of Western technologies and the ingenuity of its own people to perpetuate imperialism onto her Asian neighbors. Japan sent scholars and diplomats to observe the most modern developments in Western nations, bringing back blueprints of different systems and technologies to be built in the mainland. For instance, the Japanese replicated German and French models of transportation– which allowed them to develop sophisticated railway systems. Moreover, Japan attempted to establish different “spheres of influence” in other Asian countries to become one of the major stakeholders in “the game of power politics in the world area” (11, Iriye). Thus, it was interesting to see Japanese imperialism take on a form where there is the physical integration of Asian countries, in addition to the ideological, cultural, and technological incorporation of Western elements. 

Higuchi further expounds upon the imperial expansion of the Japanese empire, and its shifting dynamics with other global forces through an agricultural lens. He characterizes Japan as an ‘organic’ empire that imported fish meal and soybean cake “from northern territories and spheres of influence” (142, Higuchi). This caused its commercial nitrogen fertilizers to remain predominantly plant and animal based until the early 19th century. The heavy exportation of Hokkaido’s herring fish and Manchuria’s soybean cake into mainland Japan implies that the imperial core aggressively exploited its peripheral regions– not only for minerals and fossil fuel, but also for plant and animal based products such as food, fiber, and fertilizer. Japan’s reliance on organic materials stands in stark contrast to the West, which uses only 2% of commercial nitrogen fertilizers that come from vegetable and animal sources– compared to 70% used in Japan (146, Higuchi). The nitrogen extraction from herring and soybean is a paragon illustration of how the Japanese followed western practices en suite, and were able to transform it into something entirely of their own making.

However, Japan’s unforeseen rise to becoming a formidable contender on the world’s political-economic platform also came with unprecedented complications– as discussed in Cumings and Shigenobu’s pieces. Even though the US was eager to keep Japan as a trade partner in the cooperative trilateral policy, they also viewed Japan as a threat due to its status as a rising global power. Determined to remain the central hegemonic power, the US set forth a series of orders against Japan in an attempt to stump the country’s new progress. Such restrictions included Nixon’s New Economic Policy in 1971, Japanese immigration ban laws, and ultimately the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The purpose of such stipulations was so that the US could continue to unilaterally influence and manage the world’s economy, with other Western nations following closely in favor. According to Cumings, “Japan’s problem was that it had upset the balance of the world system,” as the only Asian country who was able to break into the Western dominated game of imperial conquest– threatening to supersede the original players at an alarming rate. Thus, Western powers attempted to keep the Japanese and other Asian forces ‘in their place’ through a variety of means, including economic control, political intimidation, racism, and more. This was further reinforced by Shigenobu’s personal account of racist treatment from Westerners. Shigenobu calls for universal equality, and yet claims that the “white are obsessed with the mistaken theory that they are superior to all other races” (1, Shigenobu). The author laments the unfair treatment from Westerners towards Asiatic races, with terms such as the ‘yellow peril’ being used to describe Asians. Sanctimoniously, Shigenobu criticizes the US and modern Europe for utilizing slaves, but what is hypocritical about his account can be seen in imperial Japan’s brutal treatment towards its subjects. Racism was employed by the West as an instrument to control Japan’s role in the hierarchy of imperialist nations, and also reinforce their inferiority compared to the superiority of whites.

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The dominant theme of this week’s readings revolved around the complete overhaul of the Meiji Ishin in replacing the Japanese feudal system, and Japan’s attempt toward westernization. Especially during a time where social-political unrest was stirring, the uncertainty of the masses set the stage for a major revolution from a feudal state into a modern nation-state. Thus, the Japanese adopted a plethora of different western practices in its attempt to catch up to other global players; three major factors included a change in governance, religion, production, and technology inspired by western influences.

The Najita text discussed how the transition from a feudal system into a strong, centralized nation-state was not an easy process; Japan has faced predicaments of integrating its old traditions with new attempts to modernize, struggling to reconcile and decide which factors to abandon, and which to keep. For instance, the once honorable samurai warrior found himself almost completely stripped of his power; the samurais were swiftly and effectively declassed,  and had their hereditary stipends terminated and replaced with fixed-value bonds. To cushion the jarring declassment, the phrase 'shizoku' was used to refer to them and maintain what little social dignity that the Tokugawa aristocracy had left. Beyond this, samuris were "denied their conspicuous symbols of class identification and were ordered to shed their topknot hairstyle and, more crucially, their powerful swords" (82, Najita). As a medium towards centralization, the new Japanese government also mandated policies such as an universal education system and military conscription, inferably to promote a common, shared cultural fabric and strengthen Japanese nationalism sentiment. There was initial controversy over whether the social reorganization would either unify aristocrats and commoners together, or create a more divisive state. Former elites suddenly found themselves having to compete with ambitious farmers determined to make a life for themselves.

Fukuzawa and the other two readings discuss the dynamic changes in the national religion as being reflective of the drastic reforms that the Meiji was undertaking. Specifically, Buddhism and Christianity. The entrance of Christianity into Japan, and its growing appeal, gave rise to a new wave of intellectual thought and social-political attitudes. For instance, many Japanese priests championed for progressive beliefs such as universal suffrage, the separation of church and state (marked by the Great Teaching campaign), the participation of women in society, and other values of equality. This reflects that Japan was not only attempting to modernize in terms of its political and economic structure, but also in its cultural ideologies. Aligning with the political and economic changes to governance, religion in Japan sought to unify the people by providing an equal platform and common identity-- reinforcing the nationalist sentiment of the newly established nation-state.

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Both Burbank’s chapter “Imperial Repertoires and Myths of Modern Colonialism” and the film “The Battle of Algiers” illustrate an embodiment of modern colonialism, and its gradual transfiguration into a bevy/constellation of nation-states. The imperial structures of the 19th century pioneered a novel definition of what constitutes an ‘empire’. Not only did modern empires rule over far more vast, expansive territories that were turned into colonies– but societally, technologically, economically, ethically, and intellectually demonstrate a marked departure from previous empires. New waves of industrialization catapulted western ethnocentrism and a rise in racial segregation. Scientific developments and new modes of transportation– such as railroads, steam engines, telegraphs, machine gun weaponry, and vaccines– allowed Westerners to explore other territories at an immensely more rapid speed. Such technological innovations allowed Europeans to quickly access the Chinese empire and ‘discover’ the North Americas. It also fueled the widespread European belief of being superior to other cultures. Western colonies justified their invasions of other territories by perpetuating an ethical ideology of being the ‘chosen’ people responsible for bringing European developments to tame these savages– claiming that it was the ‘white man’s burden’ to civilize the locals on indigenous lands. By spinning an ethical narrative to their colonial agenda, empires such as Great Britain, France, Portugal, and Spain attempted to conquer and expand into other areas of the world. The interactions between different nations promulgated the circulation of goods, inventions, and thought/ideas. Such Eurocentric models of imperialism later influenced the Japanese to take after western colonization. 

One of the major themes that connected this week’s reading with the movie is the discriminatory attitudes that European imperialists held toward colonized groups. In the film, it can be argued that Colonel Mathieu was the epitome of European sophistication and values. He is handsome, dignified, and charismatic– with suave sunglasses and a confident swagger. Most importantly, he embodies the intellectual reason that the French pride themselves on, used even when defending methods of torture used to quell the Algerian rebellion. In contrast, the Algerians represent the common everyman. Unlike the French, most of the Algerians were illiterate and oppressed by the colonial system. Even the loosely organized guerrilla movements showcase that the fighting methods of Algerians were far less refined than that of European warfare. Yet, the power and passion of the masses led their revolutionary efforts to a triumphant win. The European disdain toward Algerian locals were evident in the film, with multiple scenes filled with discrimination. The film sets a perfect example of how internal conflict within a colony, often due to racists and classist undertones of being conquered, can lead to insurgence of the masses. Similar instances in history include China’s Boxer Rebellion, the Cuban Revolution, the US Independence from Great Britain, and many more.

China in the 19th century serves as another example of the theme of the racist treatment that European authorities inflected toward its subjects. Burbank discussed how weaknesses in imperial rule can lead to exploitation by foreign powers, such as China’s Opium Wars. The occupation of Western forces in China’s internal mainland, such as the creation of spheres of Influences, underscore the strained dynamics between colonizers and the colonized– in this case, China. The introduction of addictive goods, such as tea, coffee, sugar, opium, and other drugs serves as a predominant reason that led to the fall of the great Qing Dynasty. This is in part because the trade caused China to allow foreign nations entry into the mainland, rendering them vulnerable, and causing them to lapse into the indentured fetters of European powers. It also serves as the perfect example of conflict and imperial control of a country brought about by external means. The contemporary trade-war betweenChina and the US demonstrates the potency of Eurocentrism as China’s colossal economic growth poses a threat to other players in the global market. It shows that the impact of colonialism and the residual historical tensions continue to have a resounding effect on our current political climate– whether we’d like it to or not.

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The overarching purpose that Burbank and Cooper expound upon in both texts examines how political bodies are shaped across time, while taking into account a variety of sovereign frameworks, ruling strategies, political-cultural ideologies, and national identity/affiliations that both colonizers and the colonized groups belong to. One of the major themes that Burbank and Cooper underscore is the role that homogeneity plays in establishing an empire versus a nation-state. The two readings also stress another important concept, namely that the transition from an empire into a nation-state is not linear or sustainable. Both historians argue that this is justified by the longevity of empires and the development of sophisticated societies under its rule. This renders our conception of the modern nation-state as an necessary aftermath to other forms of government to be somewhat expendable. Both themes hold critical implications for history, where I focus on discussing the former in this response.

A critical idea that Burbank and Cooper highlights is the issue of homogeneity in the incorporation of diverse pockets of people, used when distinguishing between an empire versus nation-state. An empire is an extensive political unit that is often composed of an aggregate of many territories brought under by supreme power. Nation-states, in contrast, is a sovereign polity that underscores the commonality of its majority community, often by increasing nationalist sentiment at the exclusion of minority populations and marginalized groups. Burbank contends “both kinds of states are incorporative– they insist that people be ruled by their institutions– but the nation-state tends to homogenize those inside its borders and exclude those who do not belong, while the empire reaches outward and draws, usually coercively, peoples whose difference is made explicit under its rule” (25, Burbank). Empires often self-consciously maintain the diversity of people that they conquer when incorporating them into an existing colony, and govern different people according to different customs within the polity. For instance, the Mongols normalized the multiplicity of people and their varied customs as a useful asset by employing Buddhist, Confucianist, Christian, Daoist, and Islamic administrators. Thus, the imperial strategy that the Mongols leveraged allowed the empire to shelter diverse religions and inflect its repertoires of power across the world. Burbank & Cooper posit “all empires were to some degree reliant on both incorporation and differentiation,” where they could integrate, build upon, or pioneer new ways of authoritative rule/political governance (30, Burbank). Conversely, the empire is more incorporative in that it declares the non-equivalence of multiple populations and emphasizes multicultural differences amongst people that exist within a nation.

On the contrary, nation-states attempt to draw strict boundaries between “undifferentiated insiders and ‘barbarian’ outsiders" (29, Burbank). For example, the Roman empire attempted to establish a highly homogenous civilization by constructing a unified religious community founded on the worship of Roman gods and goddesses, and later under Christianity. Another way that the Romans fostered homogenization is by developing distinct artistic styles through architecture, fine arts (sculptures & paintings), literature, scholarship and other pedagogical practices. Moreover, the Roman empire encouraged homogeneity amongst its civilians by underscoring democratic rule and legal citizenship rights, c creating a sense of agency that were only extended to men. Women, slaves,  barbarians, and other minorities outside of the main homogenous body were barred from political participation. The dangers of nationally homogeneous nation-states and polities is the possibility for tyranny to take place, which can result in political upheaval threatening to overthrow the regime.

A theme I want to investigate in the future is progress: in an economic-academic, ethical, and backward sense. The ability for empires to promulgate wide-sweeping political and economic transformations, propelling a nation to the global stage, to trade with other major players and global actors, and set into motion through competition. Technological innovations and scientific developments, such as European weaponry that allowed them to quickly access the Chinese and Persian Empire in addition to exploring ‘undiscovered’ territory such as the North Americas. Ethicality and the morality of personhood (status). Conversely, I would like to understand how weaknesses in imperial rule can lead to exploitation by foreign powers, such as China’s Opium Wars that lead to the fall of the great Qing Dynasty. Lapse into the indentured fetters of European powers. 

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